• Ana Sayfa

Bilişim teknolojilerindeki gelişmelerin anayasal fonksiyonlar üzerindeki dönüştürücü etkisi

Tezin Türü: Doktora

Tezin Yürütüldüğü Kurum: Marmara Üniversitesi, Türkiye

Tezin Onay Tarihi: 2019

Tezin Dili: Türkçe

Öğrenci: Duygu Şimşek Aktaş

Danışman: OSMAN CAN

Özet:

ÖZET Tarihte gerçekleşmiş teknolojik devrimler arasında en büyük sosyal ve kültürel değişiklikleri meydana getiren ve kendini sürekli artan bir hızla yenilemeyi sürdüren, dijital devrim olmuştur. Egemenliğin bileşenlerinden olan siyasal iktidar da insan yaşamındaki ve paradigmasındaki bu global ölçekli ve bütüncül değişime karşı kayıtsız kalamamaktadır. Dijital devrimin siyasal iletişim ve siyasal katılım alanındaki katkılarının, anayasal fonksiyonları yerine getiren kişi ve kurumlar üzerinde de etki yaratması beklenmekte ve hâlihazırda gözlemlenmektedir. Bunun yanında yurttaşlar da kolektif karar alma süreçlerine etki edebilecek yeni teknolojik olanakları gözlemleyerek artık daha aktif katılımcılar olabileceklerini düşünmekte ve hatta çoğu zaman kamusal kararlara doğrudan yön verebileceklerine inanmaktadır. Bu tez yasama, yürütme ve yargı organlarının yapısının ve işleyişinin bilişim teknolojilerindeki gelişmeler ile birlikte dönüşümünü incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Bu dönüşüm incelenirken ayrıca bilişim teknolojilerinin siyasal iktidarın kullanılmasına ve denetlenmesine yurttaşları dâhil etme biçimine de değinilecektir. Çalışma boyunca Türkçe ve İngilizce literatürün yanı sıra karşılaştırmalı hukuktan uygulamalı örneklere de başvurulacaktır. İÇİNDEKİLER Sayfa No. ÖZET…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………i ABSTRACT…………………………………………….……………………………………………………......…ii İÇİNDEKİLER……………………………………………………………………………………………........…iii KISALTMALAR…………………………………………………………………….……………….…..........…vii GİRİŞ……...................................................................................................................................................1 BİRİNCİ BÖLÜM: DEMOKRATİK EGEMENLİĞİN KULLANILMASINDA ERKLER ARASINDA DEĞİŞEN DENGELER VE GELİŞEN TEKNOLOJİNİN ROLÜ I.ANAYASAL FONKSİYONLAR ve ERKLER AYRILIĞI………………………......................…………11 A.Erkler Ayrılığı Kuramı ve Tarihsel Gelişim İçinde Olgunlaşan Düşünsel Temelleri…………………………………………………………………………...................................…….14 1.“Erkler Ayrılığı” Kavramı………………………………………………………..................................…14 2.Kuramın Bilimsel ve Teknik Gelişmeler ile Birlikte Dönüşümü……………………………………………………………………………………..........................15 3.Kuramın Düşünsel Temelleri………………………………………………....................................….18 a.John Locke………………………………………………………………………........................................20 b.Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de la Bréde et de Montesquieu……………………………………………………………………....................................……21 c.Jean-Jacques Rousseau………………………………………………...............................................…23 d.Hans Kelsen……………………………………………………………….......................................……..25 e.Carl Schmitt…………………………………………………………………........................................….26 B.Farklı Hükümet Modellerinde Erkler Ayrılığı Ve Yürütmenin Güçlendirilmesi Yönelimleri……………………………………………………………..................................................……27 1.Parlamenter Hükümet Modelinde Güçlü Yürütme Yönelimi: Birleşik Krallık Örneği…………………………………………………………………...........................................................34 2.Rasyonelleştirilmiş Parlamenter Hükümet Modelinde Güçlü Yürütme Yönelimi: Federal Almanya Örneği…………………….……...............................................................................................37 3.Yarı-Başkanlık Hükümet Modelinde Güçlü Yürütme Yönelimi: Fransa Örneği………………………………………………………….................................................................….38 4.Başkanlık Hükümeti Modelinde Güçlü Yürütme Yönelimi: Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Örneği…………………………………………...........................................................................................41 C.Demokratik Egemenliğin Kullanılmasında Dönüşüm Ve Erkler Ayrılığı Kuramı Üzerine Yeni Fikirler………………………………………………......................................................................….44 1.Egemen “Halk”……………………………………………………….…….............................……………46 2.Egemen “Ulus”……………………………………………………………………….............................….48 3.Temsil Kurumunun Sorgulanması……………………………………........................................…..49 4.Erkler Ayrılığı Kuramı Üzerine Bazı Yeni Fikirler……………….............................................…51 a.Dördüncü Bir Erkin Gerekliliğine Değinen Yazarlar…..............................................................52 b.Dördüncü Erk Olarak “Halk”ı Düşünen Yazarlar……............................................................….55 i.Bruce Ackerman………………………………………………......................................................………55 ii.Ethan Leib……………………………………………………………...................................................….56 5.Katılıma Dair Bazı Eleştiriler……………………………………………....................................…….57 II.GELİŞEN TEKNOLOJİ ve DEĞİŞEN TOPLUM……………………….....................…………………62 A.Teknoloji–Toplum Etkileşimi Üzerine……………………………………………............................62 B.Bilişim, İnternet Ve Ağ……………………………………………………………….....................…….69 C.Çevrimiçi Siyasal İletişim………………………………………………………….….......................….75 1.Tekno-Kötümser Yaklaşım…………………………………………………....................................…..76 2.Tekno-İyimser Yaklaşım……………………………………………………...................................……81 İKİNCİ BÖLÜM: ANAYASAL FONKSİYONLARIN BİLİŞİM TEKNOLOJİLERİ İLE DÖNÜŞÜMÜ VE DEĞİŞEN DENGE-DENETİM ARAÇLARI I.ANAYASAL FONKSİYONLARIN DÖNÜŞÜMÜ…………………………..................…………………84 A.Parlamentoların Yerine Getirdiği Fonksiyonların Dönüşümü……........................................85 1.Temsil Fonksiyonu Bakımından…………………………………………......................................….89 2.Müzakere Fonksiyonu Bakımından…………………………………….......................................….96 3.Hükümeti Denetleme Fonksiyonu Bakımından……………….............................................…..98 4.Yasa Koyuculuk Fonksiyonu Bakımından………………………............................................….103 5.Aslî Kuruculuk Fonksiyonu Bakımından…………………………..........................................….113 B.Yürütme Erkinde Hükümet Fonksiyonunun Dönüşümü…….......................................……..119 1.Elektronik Devlet (E-Devlet)………………………………………………......................................124 2.Kitle Kaynaklı Çalışma (Crowdsourcing)………………………...........................................……126 3.Yenilenen Sosyal Sözleşmede Hükümet…………………………..........................................…129 4.Dijital (Akıllı) Hükümetler………………………………………………...................................…….136 C.Yargı Fonksiyonunun Dönüşümü……………………………………..........................…………….144 1.Mahkemenin Fiziksel Dönüşümü…………………………………….......................................…..144 2.Yargılamanın Aktörlerinin Geçirmekte Olduğu Dönüşüm....................................................145 II. SİYASAL İKTİDARIN SINIRLANDIRILMASINDA DENGE VE DENETİM MEKANİZMALARININ DÖNÜŞÜMÜ………………………………………………………...........…….154 A.Siyasal İktidarın Anayasal Denge ve Denetim Araçları ile Sınırlandırılması………………………………………………………………………………….155 B.Siyasal İktidarın Yurttaşların Etkin Olduğu Denge ve Denetim Araçları ile Sınırlandırılması………………………………………………………………..........................................159 1.Siyasal Katılım…………………………………………………………………............................……..159 2.Yönetişim………………………………………………………………………….........................………165 3.Etkin Muhalefet……………………………………………………………………............................…168 a. Dijital Aktivizm……………………………………………………….........................................….168 i.Slaktivizm……………………………………………………………..................................................….168 ii.Kampanya Aktivizmi……………………………………………........................................................169 iii.Yurttaş Gazeteciliği…………………………………………….........................................................169 iv.Hacktivizm………………………………………………………...................................................……169 v.Whistleblowing ve Leaking………………………………...........................................................…170 b.Çevrimiçi Vasıtalar ile Örgütlenen Toplumsal Hareketler………………………………………………………......................................………………….171 4.Medya………………………………………………………………….......................…………………….175 5.Yerel Yönetimler……………………………………………………..............................……………….178 6.Sivil Toplum Örgütleri……………………………………………...............................………………182 SONUÇ…………………………………………………………………………………………...………….…186 KAYNAKÇA………………………………………………………………………………...………...……......190 -------------------- ABSTRACT Among all technological breakthroughs that the history has seen, the digital revolution is the one that has led to the largest social and cultural alternation and maintained a constantly accelerating self-renewal. Political power as a component of sovereignty also fails to ignore this holistic shift in human life and paradigm. It is expected and already observed that the contribution made by the digital revolution to political communication and political participation is soon to have an impact on the persons and institutions practicing the constitutional functions as well. At the same time, citizens, as they observe the new technological opportunities that may affect collective decision-making processes, assume that they can become more active participants and often believe that they can dominate public decisions. This dissertation aims to examine the structural and functional transformation of the legislative, executive and judicial bodies along with the developments in information technologies. At the same time, it will be explained how information technologies support citizens’ participation in processes of enjoying and controlling the political power. Besides applied examples from comparative law, references will also be made to the reviewed literature in Turkish and in English throughout the study. LIST OF CONTENTS Page No. CHAPTER ONE: THE CHANGING BALANCE BETWEEN POWERS IN PRACTICING SOVEREIGNTY AND THE ROLE OF THE DEVELOPING TECHNOLOGY I.CONSTITUTIONAL FUNCTIONS AND THE SEPARATION OF POWERS………....................…11 A.The Separation of Powers Theory and Its Philosophical Roots In History……….………..14 1.The Concept of “Separation of Powers”………..............................…………………………..……14 2.The Transformation of the Theory Along with the Scientific and Technical Changes……………………………………………………………………………….....................................15 3.Intellectual Foundations of the Theory…………………………………...............................…….18 a.John Locke……………………………………………………………………….....................................…20 b.Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de la Bréde et de Montesquieu……………………………………………………………………………….........................…21 c.Jean-Jacques Rousseau……………………………………………………....................................……23 d.Hans Kelsen……………………………………………………………….……........................................25 e.Carl Schmitt…………………………………………………………………….........................................26 B Separation of Powers and Strengthening the Executive in Different Government Models ……………………………………………………………………………….............................……..27 1.Seeking a Stronger Executive in a Parliamentary Government Model: Case of the United Kingdom ……………………………………………................................................................….34 2.Seeking a Stronger Executive in a Rationalised Palrliamentarism: Case of Federal Germany …………………….………....................................................................................................…37 3.Seeking a Stronger Executive in a Semi-Presidency: Case of France ……………......…….38 4.Seeking a Stronger Executive in a Presidency: Case of the United States of America……………………………………………………………….....................................................…...41 C.Transformation in Practicing Sovereignty and New Ideas on the Idea of Separation of Powers…………………………………………………………………..............................................……….44 1.The Sovereign “People”……………………………………………...............................……………….46 2.The Sovereign “Nation” ……………………………………………...............................……………...48 3.Questioning the Idea of Representation………….…………………...............................………..49 4.New Ideas on the Theory of Separation of Powers…………….…....................................……51 a.Writers Who Mention the Need for a Fourth Power……..................................................……52 b.Writers Who Call the Fourth Power “the People”…………...................................................….55 i.Bruce Ackerman……………………………………………………..........................................………….55 ii.Ethan Leib…………………………………………………………….......................................…………..56 5.Criticism on Participation………………………………………......................………………………..57 II.IMPROVING TECHNOLOGY and the CHANGING SOCIETY…….................…………………….61 A.On the Interaction of Technology and Society …………………......................………………...62 B.Informatics, Internet and the Web………………………………….................……………….…….69 C.Online Politic Communication……………………………………………………….…...........……...75 1.The Techno-Pessimistic Approach………………………………………….……..............................76 2.The Techno-Optimistic Approach…………….…………………………………..........................….81 CHAPTER TWO: THE TRANSFORMATION OF CONSTITUTIONAL FUNCTIONS ALONG WITH INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES AND THE CHANGING MECHANISMS OF CHECKS AND BALANCES I.TRANSFORMATION OF CONSTITUTIONAL FUNCTIONS………………….............…………..…84 A.Transformation of Functions Undertaken by Parliaments…………………............................85 1.In Terms of Representation…………………………………………………………........................….89 2.In Terms of Deliberation……………………………………………………………......................…….96 3.In Terms of Oversight on the Government……………………………...................................…..98 4.In Terms of Legislation………………………………………………………......................………….103 5.In Terms of Primary Constitutent Power……………………………….......................................113 B.Transformation of the Governing Function in the Executive Power.................................118 1.Electronic Government…………………………………………………………….....................….….123 2.Crowdsourcing………………………………………………………………………………................…125 3.Government in a Re-shaped Social Contract………………………...................................……128 4.Smart Governments…………………………………………………………………....................…….135 C.Transformation of the Judicial Function……….………………………………...................…….143 1.The Physical Transformation of the Court………………………………...............................….143 2.The Transformation of the Actors of Judiciary…………………….......................................….144 II. TRANSFORMATION OF THE MECHANISMS OF CHECKS AND BALANCES IN CONSTRAINING POLITICAL POWER…………………………………………………………..……….153 A.Constraining the Political Power by Tools of Checks and Balances Deriving from the Legal System………………………………………………………................................................…..….154 B.Constraining the Political Power by Tools of Checks and Balances Dominated by the Citizens……………………………………………………………………...........................................……158 1.Political Participation…………………………………….…………….............................…………..158 2.Governance…………………………………………………………………….........................…………164 3.Active Online Opposition………………………………………………….............................………167 a. Digital Activism……………………………………………………............................………….….167 i.Slacktivism………………………………………………………………........................................….….167 ii.Campaign Activism……………………………………………………............................................…168 iii.Citizen Journalism……………………………………………………............................................….168 iv.Hacktivism………………………………………………………….…………........................................168 v.Whistleblowing ve Leaking………………………………………................................................…169 b.Social Movements Organised by Online Tools……………................................................…..170 4.Media……………………………………………………………………........................………………….174 5.Local Governments………………………………………………….............................……………….176 6.Non-Governmental Organisations……………………………...........................…………….……180 CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………………………......…….…185 BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………………………………...…….189